What is Heidegger's intention in his book on Nietzsche? It isto advance his uncovering of Being, not in the sense of thebeingness that makes every being a being, but in the sense of what,inHeidegger's account, philosophers implicitly project, take forgranted, and then ignore when they clarify this beingness itself.
The fact that readers have become familiar with Heidegger'sview that there is sucha"Being," however, should not lead us to takefor granted that it exists. Nor should the mysterious statements thathe sometimes makes`about Being lead us to dismiss his argumentprematurely.
The fact that readers have become familiar with Heidegger'sview that there is sucha"Being," however, should not lead us to takefor granted that it exists. Nor should the mysterious statements thathe sometimes makes`about Being lead us to dismiss his argumentprematurely.
The central questions to ask Heidegger are whether"there is" Being at all, in the sense that he intends it, and what itscharacteristicsmight be. Less elliptically, the issue is whetherprevious philosophy, or a richer metaphysics, is sufficient to graspthe phenomena that are apparently most in need of illumination byHeidegger's understanding of Being.
Heidegger advances his intention inNietzscheby clarifyingseveral basic structures of beingness, several leading questions of"metaphysics," the better to ultimately differentiate metaphysicsfrom thought about Being as such and to take the determinations ofbeingness-essence and existence, for example-back to their unityin Being. The bulk of Heidegger's discussion, therefore, concen-
"This essay is the first part of a discussion of Martin Heidegger'sNietzsche.The second part will appear in the next volume ofThe Political ScienceReviewer.
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trates on making clear what metaphysics is, and what Nietzsche'splace is in metaphysics' "history."
Because what Heidegger means by metaphysics is identical towhat he means by philosophy, Heidegger'sNietzscheproves to be acentral locus for his discussion of philosophy in general. Therefore,even if Heidegger's attempt to disclose a Being as such that eludesthe philosophers falls short, and philosophy's horizon proves to bethe basic one, hisNietzscheremains fundamental, for it discussesphilosophy with evident force. Its power is similar to that ofBeingand Timein the sense that Heidegger's analysis of what is apparentlyfamiliar to us-there, elementary human phenomena, here, thestandpoints of various philosophers-is sufficiently compelling thatit stands as evidence for his overall approach. Would Heidegger havebeen able to see so deeply intophysis,subjectivity, and value if he hadnot uncovered the fundamental ground in terms of which theseconcepts can be discussed? Moreover,Nietzschediscusses phenom-ena, such as love and, especially, beauty, that were ignored or givenshort shrift inBeing and Time.These discussions make it difficult toclaim that Heidegger's relative silence there on such questionsdemonstrates the inadequacy of his understanding. On the contrary:his analyses of these phenomena inNietzscheare so illuminating thatthey seem more to support than to undermine him.
The place of Nietzsche in Heidegger's analysis is simple: Nietzsche'swork is the end of philosophy, end in the sense that with him the basicpossibilities of metaphysics are completed, and, indeed, exhausted.This is especially clear for the modern metaphysics of subjectivity,with its evident emphasis on "will," but as Heidegger sees it, thepossibilities that Nietzsche unfolds ultimately are contained inmetaphysics as Plato originated it.
This metaphysical place that Heidegger finds for Nietzsche ishardly an obvious one, even today when our understanding ofNietzsche is so much under the influence of Heidegger's interpre-tation. For Nietzsche is famous as one who denounces all talk about
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"Being" and turns instead to unvarnished "becoming."
Heidegger nonetheless understands Nietzsche's thought to bethe completion of metaphysics for two reasons. First, he argues thatNietzsche deals with the basic metaphysical distinctions at theproper metaphysical level, sometimes intentionally, sometimes asinsufficiently considered presuppositions or projections that groundhis intentional arguments. We cannot understand will to power orthe eternal return of the same, for example, unless we see that theyare arguments about the Being of beings, and not statements aboutor within physics, psychology, or historiology. That Nietzsche some-times treats them as statements within the sciences and offers proofsappropriate to these sciences shows only that he did not alwayssucceed in properly structuring and expressing his thought. Indeed,that theWillto Powerconsists of plans, sketches, and notes, orga-nized by others under editorial schemes that Heidegger seldomrefrains from denouncing, is evidence for this, although these defi-ciencies do not prevent Heidegger from using these notes (andsections ofThusSpake Zarathustra)as his chief texts, with onlyoccasional reference to,say,Beyond Good and EvilorTwilight of theIdols.The basic point, as we will see, is that Nietzsche's remarksabout truth and value, as well as his discussions of eternal return andwill to power, not to mention (and, in fact, more fundamentally than)what he says directly about Being and becoming, are ontologicalstatements. Even, or in fact, especially, when Nietzsche talks aboutphenomena such as "art" and "life" we must not mistake him for anart historian or a failed biologist. He is not taking for granted what artor life mean and then making remarks about phenomena that hethoughtlessly believes to be living or artistic. Rather, he is firstestablishingwhat art and life mean, first clarifying what art and lifeare in their being and how they are grounded in this being.
The second way that Heidegger maintains the argument thatNietzsche completes metaphysics is by indicating-"indicating,"because this analysis is less developed than the first point-thatNietzsche's understanding of being represents the final triumph ofbeings over Being, the fullest forgetfulness of Being as such.Nietzsche's understanding is perfectly coordinated with (that is, it is
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the appropriate metaphysical understanding projected in advance ofand making possible) man's dealing with every being, includinghimself, as a being to be dominated and controlled. It belongstogether with "machination," which is an early statement of whatHeidegger later speaks and writes about as technology. The com-plete oblivion of Being is presaged at the very beginning of meta-physics, with Plato; more obviously, Nietzsche radicalizes what is atthe heart of the defining event of modernity, Descartes' uncoveringof Being as the methodical representedness of objects in theircertainty to the human subject whose own representing is theultimate certainty.
The precise elements of Heidegger's view of Nietzsche asphilosopher, as metaphysician, flow from his grasp of what is crucialinmetaphysics as such. Heidegger's discussion is not normallyformulaic, however, but emerges in his "confrontation" withNietzsche. The distinguishing rhetorical quality of the book (espe-cially of the lectures, on which I am concentrating here in Part I andwhich, together with several essays on the History of Being on whichIwill concentrate in Part II, make upNietzscheas a whole) is toencourage us to consider the guiding questions of metaphysics asthey emerge in Nietzsche himself, and in what we must see aboutearlier thinkers in order to grasp what Nietzsche explicitly intendsand implicitly observes. Mechanical repetition of these crucial ele-ments, however, often becomes the unfortunate substance of whatis said about Heidegger'sNietzschewhen, departing from Heidegger'sown practice, one summarizes his material formulaically rather thanattempting to think it through. Nonetheless, glancing at theseelements is what allows Heidegger to understand will to power,eternal return, truth, perspective, and values as well as he does;therefore, we must organize our discussion around Heidegger's ownfundamental distinctions.
To every understanding of the beingness of beings, Heideggerargues, there belongs some interpretation ofwhatbeings are, whichwe usually call their essence, andthatbeings are, which we usuallycall their existence. In the most familiar version,whateach tree is isprecisely that-atree, i.e.,itpossesses or presents itself in its
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treeness.Thatthis tree is is a second determination of its Being. AsHeidegger reports it, the ordinary elaborations of this distinctionbetween what a being is and that it is have hardly progressed from,indeed are debased versions of, Plato or Aristotle; when we discussart, for example, we can barely begin to speak before we already aretaking for granted that to each work of art there belongs its form-what it is-and the matter that the form shapes into this particularpiece.
From this perspective, when Nietzsche discusses things in termsof the will to power, he is discussing what constitutes a being as abeing: the Being of every entity is what it is in and for will to power.And, when Nietzsche discusses the eternal return of the same, he iselaborating how and that each being is as it is, namely, as necessarilybelonging to that which decisive moments show us is a countlesscircling, a countless recurrence, an eternal becoming of what will beand has been.
In addition to essence and existence, truth is a third elementcrucially connected to Being wherever metaphysics is possible. Tospeak the truth about something is to say what it is, rather than howit seems or appears to be, i.e., rather than as it is not. What is is whatis true, whether or not we later interpret this to mean that truth is inthe subject's statements, in objects themselves, in our understand-ing, or in things as they draw forth our understanding. In this light,Nietzsche's several discussions of truth belong to his philosophical ormetaphysical projections. They are not epistemological, and surelyare not examples of cognitive psychology. Rather, they concern theBeing of beings and our understanding of this Being.
As Heidegger sees it, Nietzsche's discussion of truth belongs tothe traditional way in which metaphysics specifies truth: truth isharmony with the actual, correspondence with things as they are. Forwhen Nietzsche makes his notorious claim that previous truths are,in fact, errors, he means that they are errors from the point of viewof truth as the essential assimilation to beings as a whole, and tobeings themselves. In his understanding, beings as a whole arechaotic, not fixed. But the traditional "truths" fix things in place.Therefore, they are errors when considered in terms of how things
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in fact are: previous "truths" fall short of proper harmony. And it issome sense of proper harmony which, for Nietzsche as well as forevery other thinker, constitutes the "metaphysical essence of truth."
To outline the determinations of this harmony, which, accordingto Heidegger, Nietzsche calls justification (or "justice,"Gerechtigkeit),is to begin to outline more concretely the elements that constitutethe will to power, as Heidegger sees them. The usual truth that fixesthings in place is an error, but such error is necessary for life; truthas fixing in place, truth as holding to be true, must demonstrate anddisplay will to power. Indeed, this fixing in place must assimilate itselftowhat is to be fixated. Holding something to be true, seeingsomething as if it were stable enough to obey a principle of contra-diction, for instance, is an error because we are fixing what is notfixed, while believing that we are discovering what is already fixed.But the fixing is true because it must in some way assimilate itself tothe chaos that it is fixing. "What is true in this holding-to-be-truefixates Becoming and thus precisely does not correspond to thenature of becoming as chaos. What is true in such truth isnoncorrespondence, untruth, error, illusion. However, this charac-terization of the true as a kind of error is founded on the assimilationof the re-presented to what is to be fixated. There too, where the trueof holding-to-be-true is conceptualized as the untrue, the mostgeneral essence of truth in the sense ofhomoiosisprovides thefoundation" (III 139-40; I635).1
Holding to be true, "knowledge as the securing of permanence,"isnecessary. But it is "art as the higher value [that] is still morenecessary." The link between art and truth, their discord and theirsimilarity, is the clue to the essence of will to power. Art, Heideggerconcludes after extensive discussion of beauty, rapture, form, and"the grand style," is transfiguration. "Transfiguration creates possi-bilities for the self-surpassing of life at any given point of limitation"(111 140;I 635-636)."Self-surpassing" is fundamental in understand-ing will. For, will is command, and "commanding is the fundamentalmood of being superior," not merely to others but "always before-hand superior with regard to oneself." This superiority of the self toitself means "excelling, taking one's essence higher in such a way that
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one's very own essence consists in such excelling."
Power is "determined as the panoramic gaze into the compre-hensive vista" (III 152; I 651), or, to say this in another way, poweris overpowering, "a becoming master of oneself from having climbedand opened a higher height" (III 146; I 643). To be panoramic is tolook beyond narrow perspectives, or, more strictly, it is the lookingthat "opens up perspectives." That is to say that for Nietzsche truthin its essence (justification) does nothavea perspective; rather, "it isitself a perspective as an erecting, opening and keeping open of it"(III 148; I 646). Will and power therefore "are selfsame in themetaphysical sense that they cohere in the one original essence of thewill to power"; in thinking the "essence" of either will or of power, wedo not think them alone, but, rather, think will to power. Hence, "willto power means empowering to the excelling of itself. Such overpow-ering to excelling is at the same time the fundamental act of excellingitself. For this reason, Nietzsche constantly speaks of power being initself `enhancement of power'; the powering of power is empoweringto `more' power" (III 152;153; I 651).
Knowledge, the securing of permanence or the fixating of things,is necessary to, and proceeds within, will to power because "knowl-edge in each case posits the fixated and fixating boundaries so thatthere can be something to surpass, whereas art is able to retain itshigher necessity. Art and knowledge require each other in theiressence. Art and knowledge accomplishing their reciprocity firstbring about the full securing of permanence of the living as such" (III140; I 636).
The full story of this permanence, however, cannot be told untilwe see that the essence of the will to power is itself "permanentizingbecoming into presence." For the empowering to the excelling ofone's own essence that constitutes will to power"brings excelling-Becoming-to a stand and to permanence." Nietzsche "wants Be-coming and what becomes, as the fundamental character of beingsas a whole; but he wants what becomes precisely and before all elseas what remains, as authentic `being', namely, being in the sense ofthe Greek thinkers." In thinking will to power, Nietzsche thinks"what is becoming and is moved in the highest and most authentic
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sense," life itself, "in its permanence" (III 156 I656).Becoming is tobe shaped "as being in such a way that as becoming it is preserved,has subsistence, i.e., is" (II466).
Heidegger's discussion of eternal return is at the same level ofphilosophical analysis as his discussion of will to power. "We must sayat the outset . . . that the doctrine of the eternal return of the sameis the fundamental doctrine in Nietzsche's philosophy" (II6; I 256).He rejects attempts to choose one concept as truer to Nietzsche'sintention than the other, and then to dismiss the other as contradic-tory or inconsequential. For although Heidegger ultimately inter-prets Nietzsche with an eye toward what Nietzsche himself did notbring explicitly to light, the path to this interpretation treats whatNietzsche in fact said with diligence and care.
The eternal return of the same is thewaythat being as a wholeis.The world's becoming is a finite turning back on itself, a perma-nent, an eternal, becoming.Howwe think the thought of eternalreturn is linked to its "content," just as will to power as what being isand eternal return as how beings are must also be linked. When Idecide in the decisive moments to be myself by surpassing andovercoming myself, I will most clearly be affirming myself as one whois by going beyond himself if each and every thing that I am, each andevery goal and purpose now revealed in its full nihilistic emptiness,is by my decision allowed to be again and again. Just as Heideggerexplicates Nietzsche's understanding of will to power by concentrat-ing on his remark, "To stamp Becoming with the character ofBeing-that is the supreme will to power," so he caps his discussionof eternal return by referring us to Nietzsche's statement: "Thateverything recursisthe closest approximation of a world of Becom-ing to one of Being: peak of the meditation."
On the basis of what we have said about will to power and eternalreturn separately, we can now understand how Heidegger believesthem to be linked, if we attend to Heidegger's summary descriptionof the recoining of Becoming as being.
What is this recoining, in which whatever becomes comes to bebeing? It is the reconfiguration of what becomes in its highest
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possibilities in which it is transfigured and attains subsistencein its very dimensions and domains. This recoining is a creating.To create, in the sense of creation out beyond oneself, is mostintrinsically this: to stand in the moment of decision, in whichmoment what has prevailed hitherto, our endowment, is di-rected toward a projected task and therefore is preserved. The"momentary" character of creation is the essence of actual,actuating eternity, which attains its highest breadth and keen-est edge as the moment of eternity in the return of the same.The recoining of what becomes into being-will to power in itshighest configuration-is in its most profound essence some-thing that occurs in the "glance of an eye" as eternal recurrenceof the same. The will to power, as constitution of being, is as itis solely on the basis of the way to be which Nietzsche projectsfor being as a whole: Will to power, in its essence and accordingto its inner possibility, is eternal recurrence of the same (II 202-3; I 466-7).
Through such analysis, Heidegger is able to show that howevermuch Nietzsche denounces sterile talk of what is permanently inbeing, his explorations project in advance what all thinkers project inadvance: he takes it for granted that Being means permanentpresence, that truth means harmony, and that all beings have both anessence and an existence.
Heidegger's analysis of what Nietzsche means by value is of thesame kind as his analyses of truth, will to power, and eternal return."Values" are not terms of morality or economics, but rather, ofmetaphysics.What Nietzsche calls values are conditions that makewill to power possible; they are what will to power posits as its ownconditions of possibility. They do not exist independently, but areonly as conditions that are useful for the preservation and enhance-ment of one of the constructs of domination into which will to powerforms itself. "Values are the conditions with which power as suchmust reckon ....`Values' are in the first place the conditions ofenhancement that the will to power has in view" (IV63; II 103).Nietzsche's notion of the enhancing viewpoint is the link between
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the talk of values and the talk of perspectives that are both soprevalent in contemporary scholarly and everyday discussion.
That Nietzsche considers values to be conditions also shows, inHeidegger's judgment, how he remains a philosophical thinker, ametaphysician, in his roots. Just as essence, existence, and truth allpertain to thinking of being, so too does the determination of entitiesin terms of conditions. In fact, Heidegger believes that Nietzsche'sdiscussion of value completes the possibility first uncovered inPlato's discussion of the idea of the good.2
We say "the Good"and think of "good" in the Christian-moralsense of well-behaved, orderly, in keeping with law and order.For the Greeks, and for Plato too,agathonmeans the suitable,what is suitable for something and itself suitable . . . . ThroughPlato's interpretation of idea asagathonBeing comes to bewhat makes a being fit to be a being. Being is shown in thecharacter of making-possible and conditioning. Here the deci-sive step for all metaphysicsistaken, through which the a prioricharacter of Being at the same time receives the distinction ofbeing a condition .wenow know that Nietzsche conceivesvalues as conditions of the possibility of the will to power; thatis,of the basic character of beings. Nietzsche thinks of thebeingness of beings essentially as a condition, making possible,making suitable,agathon.He thinks Being in a thoroughlyPlatonic and metaphysical way-even as the overturner ofPlatonism, even as the antimetaphysician (IV 169; II225-6).
Heidegger's discussions of truth, will to power, eternal return,and values differ from interpretations of Nietzsche that precede hisown because Heideggerisso obstinate, so resolute, in trying tounderstand these concepts to be formulations of the guiding meta-physical questions of philosophy, and because he himself sees thesequestions so clearly. Almost every other interpretation fails to exam-ine just what, say, Nietzsche's discussions of the will to power areabout, even when they report what he says with reasonable accuracy.At best, his statements are treated as remarkable generalizationsabout the psychological concept of "will" combined with a half-
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digested physics of energy and power. Even those thinkers who arecompelled by Heidegger to consider the intention and direction ofNietzsche's arguments lack the acute understanding of phenomenathat distinguishes Heidegger's thinking.
The power of Heidegger's analysis is evident not only in its ownterms, but in the way in which it rarely shies away from, and almostalways deals convincingly with, standard questions faced by anyonewho trulythinksabout Nietzsche: what is the status of the attempt toprove the existence of eternal return; what precisely are will andpower; what links will to power and eternal return; what links thesetwo to values and the revaluation of values; how can truth be an errorandsometruths still exist; what is meant by creation, transfiguring,surpassing, and overcoming? The price that Heidegger pays for hisrigorous metaphysical understanding, and itisa characteristic price,is to glide over almost everything that Nietzsche says about particularphenomena, particular regions of being such as art or politics, exceptto the degree that they contribute directly to the metaphysicaldiscussion.Even if Heideggeriscorrect in thinking that whatNietzsche says about art, politics, religion, and knowledge is ulti-mately conceived in terms of will to power and, therefore, is at themetaphysical level, not everything that he says is directly at that level.Some of his remarks maybe well- or ill-conceived "science." Heideggerargues that the sciences cannot demonstrate by their own methodsthe adequacy of the conception of, say, life, history, or art that theyproject in advance of their scientific analyses. The biologistquabiologist works within, but cannot demonstrate, the truth of hispreconception of what counts as living. Obviously, however, thatsame person might reflect, and reflect deeply, on the metaphysics ofthe "living." Similarly, much of what Nietzsche says maybe scientificreflections, or even everyday remarks, that take for granted what artor politics are, rather than explorations of their underlying constitu-tion and ways of being. Although Heidegger leaves undiscussed theways in which conscious philosophical reflection might actuallyinform the approachorconceptions of any science, it stands to reasonthat Nietzsche's everyday or scientific remarks, if, indeed, much ofwhat he says is in fact at that level, are at root determined by his
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philosophical reflections. But they need not always be identical tothese reflections.
The effect of Heidegger's procedure is to ignore or, from thepoint of view of politics and morality, soften much of what is mostoutrageous, dangerous, or challenging in what Nietzsche says aboutpolitics, morality, and religion.We will explore this briefly below. Itis another matter, of course, whether he is correct to assert that thegreater danger is to misinterpret the philosophical level of Nietzsche'sdiscussions, and therefore, to ignore how his thought constitutes theend of philosophy and the greatest metaphysical forgetfulness ofBeing.
II
Heidegger touches on several themes inNietzschethat are signifi-cant to students of political philosophy beyond his discussion ofNietzsche's own thought. Within the limits of my emphasis on thesections ofNietzschethat deal with philosophy rather than withHeidegger's indications about Being itself, I will briefly mentionthree of them: his division of ancient and modern thought, his explicitremarks on politics, and his remarks on relativism. I will considerHeidegger's discussion of the history of the "Event" of Being, hisattempt to bring the question of Being itself to light both as it groundsmetaphysics and as it stands on its own, in the second part of thispaper.
Heidegger understands the distinction between ancient andmodern thought to rest with Descartes' uncovering of subjectivityand the representation of beings as objects. The methodical securingof objects for my subjective certainty is what makes possible moder-nity, including the mathematical representation that is characteristicof it.Mathematical physics does not ground modernity, that is to say,but is itself grounded in the modern metaphysical projection. Byextension, it is clear that the characteristic understanding of nature,the common good, and ruling that we find in Machiavelli and Hobbeswould also need to be rooted in this projection. Heidegger mentionsMachiavelli (and Thucydides) as authors to consider when analyzing
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power. "Nietzsche . . . had clear knowledge of the fact that themetaphysics of will to power conforms only to Roman-ness andMachiavelli's Prince. For the thinker of will to power, the onlyessential figure among the Greeks was the historical thinkerThucydides, who reflects on the history of the PeloponnesianWar .... But Thucydides, the thinker of history, was not able toovercome the Platonism reigning at the basis of Nietzsche's thought"(IV 165; II 221-2).Despite this remark, Heidegger does not go on toanalyze either Thucydides or Machiavelli; his discussion of power isconfined to Nietzsche and Aristotle, and his purpose is to show thatalthough Nietzsche does not see the connection between his "con-cept of power as a concept of Being and Aristotle's doctrine," thisdoctrine has more to do with Nietzsche than do any of the academicdistinctions of possibility, actuality, and necessity. Indeed, Book IXof theMetaphysics,where Aristotle uncoversdynamis(force) as thecapacity to be gatheredinitself and prepared to work effects,energeiaas the process of dominance, the being at work of force, andentelechiaas power's coming to the circumscribed simplicity of itsessence is "the most worthy of questions" of all books in Aristotle (I64-5; I 76-8).
Still, precisely because mathematical physics is not the heart ofmodernity, one cannot help wondering whether Machiavelli's politi-cal radicalism might not prove to be the first clear projection of themodern metaphysics of subjectivity. Similarly, although it is a mis-take to take a statement about beings as such and reproduce it as ifit could be a useful or intelligible concept when applied scientificallyto one region of entities, Heidegger's clarification of the philosophi-cal link between certainty and representation would seem to provideuseful clues in understanding Hobbes and Locke. The fear of deaththat is the ground of modern political thought and practice is not somuch fear of one particular entity as itisthe fear of being nothing atall.Fear of death is the certain passion that discloses this simpleemptiness, and it is in the light of this passion that any entity is firstintelligible as-first can be-good or evil. What is good is what"secures" us in our flight from death; what is "objectively" good iswhat secures us in the steadiness of this passionate movement. Our
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rights are the authoritative standpoints in which we gather ourselvesin our certain passion and discover what is desirable. In this sense,our rights specify our subjectivity and open it outward.
Heidegger's few remarks about Nietzsche's political rhetoricmanifest his wariness of the error that we have mentioned ofconfusing philosophy with science. Heidegger obviously interpretspower metaphysically and he believes that Nietzsche does as well.But this metaphysical interpretation also prevails in Heidegger'sremarks about "great politics" and the "blond beast." For Heidegger,"great politics" is merely another one of Nietzsche's names for hisoverall effort, and the "beast" of the "blond beast" expresses thesignificance of the sensual and the living in Nietzsche, chaos andbecoming as against the rational and the fixed. But life, chaos, andbecoming are, as we have seen Heidegger argue, terms whoseauthentic Nietzschean meaning is to describe being as a whole andaspects of the beingness of beings. They are not terms of biology orphysics, or casual everyday concepts. The "political interpretations ofNietzsche's fundamental thought" are the greatest culprits in strip-ping it of its philosophical depth; they further the "flattening processthe most, if they do not actually cancel out the essence of will topower." Indeed, "it does not matter whether these political counter-feits" that prevent us from seeing the true meaning of will to power"feed a hatred of Germans or `serve' a love of Germans" (III 151; I650).Does this mean, then, that Heidegger ignores or flees theterrible implications of what Nietzsche says?
From his own perspective, Heidegger believes that he facesthem more squarely than anyone, because he has uncovered howNietzsche has brought us face to face with the sheer oblivion ofBeing.Moreover, far from shying from Nietzsche's discussion ofnihilism, he makes it thematic.
Heidegger's thematic treatment of Nietzsche's discussion ofnihilism, however, also treats it metaphysically, The devaluing of thepreviously highest values is significant not so much because it leavesa vacuum at the core of ordinary choice, as because the old gods takenat face value no longer are useful conditions of and for the perspec-tives that overpowering self-surpassing opens up. The difficulty is
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with the range and scope of the way in which beings are mastered,rather than with the growing insignificance of any particular entitiesthat happened to guide us in the past. The fact that the devaluationof this or that guiding or attractive standard or way of life might leadto unchecked destruction, murder, and misery is not what is mostterrible about nihilism; indeed, that this may result is not as such partof Heidegger's analysis.
Yet Nietzsche's understanding is the most radical triumph ofnihilism in perhaps its most important sense: the triumph of beingsover Being. Heidegger would not want to deny, indeed he wishes toassert, that this radical fact suffuses the meaning of every entitytoday. But, with the exception of one or two possible pieces ofevidence, Heidegger leaves unexplored what nihilism metaphysi-cally understood means for the fate and power of any concrete guideor restraint.
For one, Heidegger makes evident his dissatisfaction with AlfredBaeumler's interpretation of Nietzsche. We might read this dissat-isfaction as evidence of his dislike for philosophic arguments withwhich the Nazis had some sympathy. In fact, however, Heidegger'sconcern is largely with the mistake of understanding Nietzsche'sconcepts politically rather than metaphysically, and with Baeumler'sfailure to take the eternal return seriously. That is, his concern is notmoral or political in the usual sense of assessing the possibilities andstandards for everyday choice; it is moral or political only to thedegree that the failure to grasp Nietzsche correctly obfuscates thepossibility and necessity for the radical decision that will allow us tosee the singular context of Being from which beingness itself takes itslight. Presumably, this decision may then have consequences for themeaning of everyday moral and political choice. But from thestandpoint of this decision, the nihilism at the root of contemporarymorality and politics cannot be "overcome by tearing away at it orshoving it aside-which is what we do when we replace the ChristianGod with yet another ideal, such as Reason, Progress, political andeconomic `Socialism,' or mere Democracy" (II 179; I 442). Each ofthese gods is equivalent, because each. is equally dead. ThoughHeidegger may no longer believe that Nazism offers hope of being
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the political movement that is coordinate with resolute openness, hestill does not condemn it: at most, we might say that he now believesit to advance nihilism at the same level as Democracy, Reason, andProgress, at which level it would be equivalent to them, but notinferior.'
The closest that Heidegger comes to interpreting a concretepolitical event in Nietzschean terms is in a remark that he makesabout the British destruction of the French fleet at Oran in 1940. Theburden of this remark is to illustrate the fact that from Nietzsche'sstandpoint the justification for the act must stand within the Britishattempt to enhance their power. "We" [Germans? thinkers? moralmen?] cannot and dare not supply the justification, because "in ametaphysical sense" each power has its own right and comes towrong only through impotence. It belongs to the "metaphysicaltactics" of any power not to regard its opponents' actions from theirperspective but, rather, to subject them to standards of universalmorality, with the consequent value for propaganda.
Beyond its being an example of the emptiness of universalstandards once power is understood in Nietzsche's sense, isHeidegger's illustration a call for German wariness, or a reminder ofthe nihilistic meaning of Nietzsche's own thought, for Germans aswell as other Europeans? Or is it both, an instance of the link betweenhis people's destiny and the possible overcoming of nihilism (See IV144-5; II 198)?
This discussion raises the question of Heidegger's view of theopinion that truth about good and bad, indeed, truth generally, isrelativetowhat is fleeting and arbitrary. For today, of course, thisopinion usually is advanced behind the Nietzschean armor of values,perspectives, and domination. Heidegger lays out, and then criti-cizes, this ordinary judgment, especially as it is used to reduce allphilosophy to mere subjective standpoint. Whatever one may finallysay about the success of Heidegger's efforts, one must see that, justas is true of Nietzsche, he is aware of and grapples with the problemof "relativism" and the dangers it poses.
The common notion that everythingismerely relative to this orthat human standpoint fails toask,Heidegger argues, exactly who
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man is to whom things are relative, and mistakenly confuses scientificcertainty, according to this or that half-grasped notion of science,with understanding beings in their being. Some understanding ofbeings such that, say, the principle of contradiction holds true ofthem precedes every possible science. The common relativisticnotion presupposes in an unexamined way a notion of man and hisrelation to being such that talk about human subjectivity and stand-points for observation is intelligible to begin with. The actual prob-lem of justification, however, is more difficult, more subtle, and,finally,more dangerous than ordinary relativism sees because it putsin question the entire horizon in terms of which the very intelligibilityof justification is possible. Indeed, it puts in question the intelligibil-ity of the terms and concepts-human choice and decision, goodsand values, perspectives and standpoints-used to launch the com-mon criticism in the first place.
Heidegger, therefore, raises the question of justification pre-cisely as he launches into his discussion of justification as the centralterm for grasping Nietzsche's understanding of truth, and, conse-quently, of Being. Only through constructing the broadest and mostoverpowering perspective in constant self-excelling does a clearingopen in which justification of values can begin to be established.Thought through, such a notion of justification shows that Nietzscheis at one with all philosophers in ultimately attempting to see what iswithin its permanent presence. Each philosopher grounds every-thing that men choose to do in something comprehensive and"eternal," however understood. And yet the result for all, as Heideggersees it, is nihilism. The issue for us, then, is how to understand thephilosophers where they differ, a task that is possible only byquestioning on grounds on which they all stand.
Mark BlitzHudson InstituteNotes
1.The first reference will be to the English translation ofNietzsche,sometimes with minor modifications. The second refer-ence will be to the German edition. In both cases, the Roman
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numeral refers to the volume and the Arabic numeral refers to thepage within the volume. Martin Heidegger,Nietzsche,Harpercollins,1979 ff., edited by David Farrell Krell. Martin Heidegger,Nietzsche,Verlag Gunther Neske, Pfullingen, 1961. (The lectures and essaysthat make upNietzschewere first composed and delivered between1936 and 1946.)
2.I will discuss the status of Heidegger's understanding of Platoin Part II of this paper.
3.See Mark Blitz,Heidegger's "Being and Time" and thePossibility of Political Philosophy(Ithaca, NY: Cornell UniversityPress, 1981), Chapter6.
Heidegger advances his intention inNietzscheby clarifyingseveral basic structures of beingness, several leading questions of"metaphysics," the better to ultimately differentiate metaphysicsfrom thought about Being as such and to take the determinations ofbeingness-essence and existence, for example-back to their unityin Being. The bulk of Heidegger's discussion, therefore, concen-
"This essay is the first part of a discussion of Martin Heidegger'sNietzsche.The second part will appear in the next volume ofThe Political ScienceReviewer.
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trates on making clear what metaphysics is, and what Nietzsche'splace is in metaphysics' "history."
Because what Heidegger means by metaphysics is identical towhat he means by philosophy, Heidegger'sNietzscheproves to be acentral locus for his discussion of philosophy in general. Therefore,even if Heidegger's attempt to disclose a Being as such that eludesthe philosophers falls short, and philosophy's horizon proves to bethe basic one, hisNietzscheremains fundamental, for it discussesphilosophy with evident force. Its power is similar to that ofBeingand Timein the sense that Heidegger's analysis of what is apparentlyfamiliar to us-there, elementary human phenomena, here, thestandpoints of various philosophers-is sufficiently compelling thatit stands as evidence for his overall approach. Would Heidegger havebeen able to see so deeply intophysis,subjectivity, and value if he hadnot uncovered the fundamental ground in terms of which theseconcepts can be discussed? Moreover,Nietzschediscusses phenom-ena, such as love and, especially, beauty, that were ignored or givenshort shrift inBeing and Time.These discussions make it difficult toclaim that Heidegger's relative silence there on such questionsdemonstrates the inadequacy of his understanding. On the contrary:his analyses of these phenomena inNietzscheare so illuminating thatthey seem more to support than to undermine him.
The place of Nietzsche in Heidegger's analysis is simple: Nietzsche'swork is the end of philosophy, end in the sense that with him the basicpossibilities of metaphysics are completed, and, indeed, exhausted.This is especially clear for the modern metaphysics of subjectivity,with its evident emphasis on "will," but as Heidegger sees it, thepossibilities that Nietzsche unfolds ultimately are contained inmetaphysics as Plato originated it.
This metaphysical place that Heidegger finds for Nietzsche ishardly an obvious one, even today when our understanding ofNietzsche is so much under the influence of Heidegger's interpre-tation. For Nietzsche is famous as one who denounces all talk about
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"Being" and turns instead to unvarnished "becoming."
Heidegger nonetheless understands Nietzsche's thought to bethe completion of metaphysics for two reasons. First, he argues thatNietzsche deals with the basic metaphysical distinctions at theproper metaphysical level, sometimes intentionally, sometimes asinsufficiently considered presuppositions or projections that groundhis intentional arguments. We cannot understand will to power orthe eternal return of the same, for example, unless we see that theyare arguments about the Being of beings, and not statements aboutor within physics, psychology, or historiology. That Nietzsche some-times treats them as statements within the sciences and offers proofsappropriate to these sciences shows only that he did not alwayssucceed in properly structuring and expressing his thought. Indeed,that theWillto Powerconsists of plans, sketches, and notes, orga-nized by others under editorial schemes that Heidegger seldomrefrains from denouncing, is evidence for this, although these defi-ciencies do not prevent Heidegger from using these notes (andsections ofThusSpake Zarathustra)as his chief texts, with onlyoccasional reference to,say,Beyond Good and EvilorTwilight of theIdols.The basic point, as we will see, is that Nietzsche's remarksabout truth and value, as well as his discussions of eternal return andwill to power, not to mention (and, in fact, more fundamentally than)what he says directly about Being and becoming, are ontologicalstatements. Even, or in fact, especially, when Nietzsche talks aboutphenomena such as "art" and "life" we must not mistake him for anart historian or a failed biologist. He is not taking for granted what artor life mean and then making remarks about phenomena that hethoughtlessly believes to be living or artistic. Rather, he is firstestablishingwhat art and life mean, first clarifying what art and lifeare in their being and how they are grounded in this being.
The second way that Heidegger maintains the argument thatNietzsche completes metaphysics is by indicating-"indicating,"because this analysis is less developed than the first point-thatNietzsche's understanding of being represents the final triumph ofbeings over Being, the fullest forgetfulness of Being as such.Nietzsche's understanding is perfectly coordinated with (that is, it is
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the appropriate metaphysical understanding projected in advance ofand making possible) man's dealing with every being, includinghimself, as a being to be dominated and controlled. It belongstogether with "machination," which is an early statement of whatHeidegger later speaks and writes about as technology. The com-plete oblivion of Being is presaged at the very beginning of meta-physics, with Plato; more obviously, Nietzsche radicalizes what is atthe heart of the defining event of modernity, Descartes' uncoveringof Being as the methodical representedness of objects in theircertainty to the human subject whose own representing is theultimate certainty.
The precise elements of Heidegger's view of Nietzsche asphilosopher, as metaphysician, flow from his grasp of what is crucialinmetaphysics as such. Heidegger's discussion is not normallyformulaic, however, but emerges in his "confrontation" withNietzsche. The distinguishing rhetorical quality of the book (espe-cially of the lectures, on which I am concentrating here in Part I andwhich, together with several essays on the History of Being on whichIwill concentrate in Part II, make upNietzscheas a whole) is toencourage us to consider the guiding questions of metaphysics asthey emerge in Nietzsche himself, and in what we must see aboutearlier thinkers in order to grasp what Nietzsche explicitly intendsand implicitly observes. Mechanical repetition of these crucial ele-ments, however, often becomes the unfortunate substance of whatis said about Heidegger'sNietzschewhen, departing from Heidegger'sown practice, one summarizes his material formulaically rather thanattempting to think it through. Nonetheless, glancing at theseelements is what allows Heidegger to understand will to power,eternal return, truth, perspective, and values as well as he does;therefore, we must organize our discussion around Heidegger's ownfundamental distinctions.
To every understanding of the beingness of beings, Heideggerargues, there belongs some interpretation ofwhatbeings are, whichwe usually call their essence, andthatbeings are, which we usuallycall their existence. In the most familiar version,whateach tree is isprecisely that-atree, i.e.,itpossesses or presents itself in its
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treeness.Thatthis tree is is a second determination of its Being. AsHeidegger reports it, the ordinary elaborations of this distinctionbetween what a being is and that it is have hardly progressed from,indeed are debased versions of, Plato or Aristotle; when we discussart, for example, we can barely begin to speak before we already aretaking for granted that to each work of art there belongs its form-what it is-and the matter that the form shapes into this particularpiece.
From this perspective, when Nietzsche discusses things in termsof the will to power, he is discussing what constitutes a being as abeing: the Being of every entity is what it is in and for will to power.And, when Nietzsche discusses the eternal return of the same, he iselaborating how and that each being is as it is, namely, as necessarilybelonging to that which decisive moments show us is a countlesscircling, a countless recurrence, an eternal becoming of what will beand has been.
In addition to essence and existence, truth is a third elementcrucially connected to Being wherever metaphysics is possible. Tospeak the truth about something is to say what it is, rather than howit seems or appears to be, i.e., rather than as it is not. What is is whatis true, whether or not we later interpret this to mean that truth is inthe subject's statements, in objects themselves, in our understand-ing, or in things as they draw forth our understanding. In this light,Nietzsche's several discussions of truth belong to his philosophical ormetaphysical projections. They are not epistemological, and surelyare not examples of cognitive psychology. Rather, they concern theBeing of beings and our understanding of this Being.
As Heidegger sees it, Nietzsche's discussion of truth belongs tothe traditional way in which metaphysics specifies truth: truth isharmony with the actual, correspondence with things as they are. Forwhen Nietzsche makes his notorious claim that previous truths are,in fact, errors, he means that they are errors from the point of viewof truth as the essential assimilation to beings as a whole, and tobeings themselves. In his understanding, beings as a whole arechaotic, not fixed. But the traditional "truths" fix things in place.Therefore, they are errors when considered in terms of how things
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in fact are: previous "truths" fall short of proper harmony. And it issome sense of proper harmony which, for Nietzsche as well as forevery other thinker, constitutes the "metaphysical essence of truth."
To outline the determinations of this harmony, which, accordingto Heidegger, Nietzsche calls justification (or "justice,"Gerechtigkeit),is to begin to outline more concretely the elements that constitutethe will to power, as Heidegger sees them. The usual truth that fixesthings in place is an error, but such error is necessary for life; truthas fixing in place, truth as holding to be true, must demonstrate anddisplay will to power. Indeed, this fixing in place must assimilate itselftowhat is to be fixated. Holding something to be true, seeingsomething as if it were stable enough to obey a principle of contra-diction, for instance, is an error because we are fixing what is notfixed, while believing that we are discovering what is already fixed.But the fixing is true because it must in some way assimilate itself tothe chaos that it is fixing. "What is true in this holding-to-be-truefixates Becoming and thus precisely does not correspond to thenature of becoming as chaos. What is true in such truth isnoncorrespondence, untruth, error, illusion. However, this charac-terization of the true as a kind of error is founded on the assimilationof the re-presented to what is to be fixated. There too, where the trueof holding-to-be-true is conceptualized as the untrue, the mostgeneral essence of truth in the sense ofhomoiosisprovides thefoundation" (III 139-40; I635).1
Holding to be true, "knowledge as the securing of permanence,"isnecessary. But it is "art as the higher value [that] is still morenecessary." The link between art and truth, their discord and theirsimilarity, is the clue to the essence of will to power. Art, Heideggerconcludes after extensive discussion of beauty, rapture, form, and"the grand style," is transfiguration. "Transfiguration creates possi-bilities for the self-surpassing of life at any given point of limitation"(111 140;I 635-636)."Self-surpassing" is fundamental in understand-ing will. For, will is command, and "commanding is the fundamentalmood of being superior," not merely to others but "always before-hand superior with regard to oneself." This superiority of the self toitself means "excelling, taking one's essence higher in such a way that
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one's very own essence consists in such excelling."
Power is "determined as the panoramic gaze into the compre-hensive vista" (III 152; I 651), or, to say this in another way, poweris overpowering, "a becoming master of oneself from having climbedand opened a higher height" (III 146; I 643). To be panoramic is tolook beyond narrow perspectives, or, more strictly, it is the lookingthat "opens up perspectives." That is to say that for Nietzsche truthin its essence (justification) does nothavea perspective; rather, "it isitself a perspective as an erecting, opening and keeping open of it"(III 148; I 646). Will and power therefore "are selfsame in themetaphysical sense that they cohere in the one original essence of thewill to power"; in thinking the "essence" of either will or of power, wedo not think them alone, but, rather, think will to power. Hence, "willto power means empowering to the excelling of itself. Such overpow-ering to excelling is at the same time the fundamental act of excellingitself. For this reason, Nietzsche constantly speaks of power being initself `enhancement of power'; the powering of power is empoweringto `more' power" (III 152;153; I 651).
Knowledge, the securing of permanence or the fixating of things,is necessary to, and proceeds within, will to power because "knowl-edge in each case posits the fixated and fixating boundaries so thatthere can be something to surpass, whereas art is able to retain itshigher necessity. Art and knowledge require each other in theiressence. Art and knowledge accomplishing their reciprocity firstbring about the full securing of permanence of the living as such" (III140; I 636).
The full story of this permanence, however, cannot be told untilwe see that the essence of the will to power is itself "permanentizingbecoming into presence." For the empowering to the excelling ofone's own essence that constitutes will to power"brings excelling-Becoming-to a stand and to permanence." Nietzsche "wants Be-coming and what becomes, as the fundamental character of beingsas a whole; but he wants what becomes precisely and before all elseas what remains, as authentic `being', namely, being in the sense ofthe Greek thinkers." In thinking will to power, Nietzsche thinks"what is becoming and is moved in the highest and most authentic
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sense," life itself, "in its permanence" (III 156 I656).Becoming is tobe shaped "as being in such a way that as becoming it is preserved,has subsistence, i.e., is" (II466).
Heidegger's discussion of eternal return is at the same level ofphilosophical analysis as his discussion of will to power. "We must sayat the outset . . . that the doctrine of the eternal return of the sameis the fundamental doctrine in Nietzsche's philosophy" (II6; I 256).He rejects attempts to choose one concept as truer to Nietzsche'sintention than the other, and then to dismiss the other as contradic-tory or inconsequential. For although Heidegger ultimately inter-prets Nietzsche with an eye toward what Nietzsche himself did notbring explicitly to light, the path to this interpretation treats whatNietzsche in fact said with diligence and care.
The eternal return of the same is thewaythat being as a wholeis.The world's becoming is a finite turning back on itself, a perma-nent, an eternal, becoming.Howwe think the thought of eternalreturn is linked to its "content," just as will to power as what being isand eternal return as how beings are must also be linked. When Idecide in the decisive moments to be myself by surpassing andovercoming myself, I will most clearly be affirming myself as one whois by going beyond himself if each and every thing that I am, each andevery goal and purpose now revealed in its full nihilistic emptiness,is by my decision allowed to be again and again. Just as Heideggerexplicates Nietzsche's understanding of will to power by concentrat-ing on his remark, "To stamp Becoming with the character ofBeing-that is the supreme will to power," so he caps his discussionof eternal return by referring us to Nietzsche's statement: "Thateverything recursisthe closest approximation of a world of Becom-ing to one of Being: peak of the meditation."
On the basis of what we have said about will to power and eternalreturn separately, we can now understand how Heidegger believesthem to be linked, if we attend to Heidegger's summary descriptionof the recoining of Becoming as being.
What is this recoining, in which whatever becomes comes to bebeing? It is the reconfiguration of what becomes in its highest
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possibilities in which it is transfigured and attains subsistencein its very dimensions and domains. This recoining is a creating.To create, in the sense of creation out beyond oneself, is mostintrinsically this: to stand in the moment of decision, in whichmoment what has prevailed hitherto, our endowment, is di-rected toward a projected task and therefore is preserved. The"momentary" character of creation is the essence of actual,actuating eternity, which attains its highest breadth and keen-est edge as the moment of eternity in the return of the same.The recoining of what becomes into being-will to power in itshighest configuration-is in its most profound essence some-thing that occurs in the "glance of an eye" as eternal recurrenceof the same. The will to power, as constitution of being, is as itis solely on the basis of the way to be which Nietzsche projectsfor being as a whole: Will to power, in its essence and accordingto its inner possibility, is eternal recurrence of the same (II 202-3; I 466-7).
Through such analysis, Heidegger is able to show that howevermuch Nietzsche denounces sterile talk of what is permanently inbeing, his explorations project in advance what all thinkers project inadvance: he takes it for granted that Being means permanentpresence, that truth means harmony, and that all beings have both anessence and an existence.
Heidegger's analysis of what Nietzsche means by value is of thesame kind as his analyses of truth, will to power, and eternal return."Values" are not terms of morality or economics, but rather, ofmetaphysics.What Nietzsche calls values are conditions that makewill to power possible; they are what will to power posits as its ownconditions of possibility. They do not exist independently, but areonly as conditions that are useful for the preservation and enhance-ment of one of the constructs of domination into which will to powerforms itself. "Values are the conditions with which power as suchmust reckon ....`Values' are in the first place the conditions ofenhancement that the will to power has in view" (IV63; II 103).Nietzsche's notion of the enhancing viewpoint is the link between
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the talk of values and the talk of perspectives that are both soprevalent in contemporary scholarly and everyday discussion.
That Nietzsche considers values to be conditions also shows, inHeidegger's judgment, how he remains a philosophical thinker, ametaphysician, in his roots. Just as essence, existence, and truth allpertain to thinking of being, so too does the determination of entitiesin terms of conditions. In fact, Heidegger believes that Nietzsche'sdiscussion of value completes the possibility first uncovered inPlato's discussion of the idea of the good.2
We say "the Good"and think of "good" in the Christian-moralsense of well-behaved, orderly, in keeping with law and order.For the Greeks, and for Plato too,agathonmeans the suitable,what is suitable for something and itself suitable . . . . ThroughPlato's interpretation of idea asagathonBeing comes to bewhat makes a being fit to be a being. Being is shown in thecharacter of making-possible and conditioning. Here the deci-sive step for all metaphysicsistaken, through which the a prioricharacter of Being at the same time receives the distinction ofbeing a condition .wenow know that Nietzsche conceivesvalues as conditions of the possibility of the will to power; thatis,of the basic character of beings. Nietzsche thinks of thebeingness of beings essentially as a condition, making possible,making suitable,agathon.He thinks Being in a thoroughlyPlatonic and metaphysical way-even as the overturner ofPlatonism, even as the antimetaphysician (IV 169; II225-6).
Heidegger's discussions of truth, will to power, eternal return,and values differ from interpretations of Nietzsche that precede hisown because Heideggerisso obstinate, so resolute, in trying tounderstand these concepts to be formulations of the guiding meta-physical questions of philosophy, and because he himself sees thesequestions so clearly. Almost every other interpretation fails to exam-ine just what, say, Nietzsche's discussions of the will to power areabout, even when they report what he says with reasonable accuracy.At best, his statements are treated as remarkable generalizationsabout the psychological concept of "will" combined with a half-
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digested physics of energy and power. Even those thinkers who arecompelled by Heidegger to consider the intention and direction ofNietzsche's arguments lack the acute understanding of phenomenathat distinguishes Heidegger's thinking.
The power of Heidegger's analysis is evident not only in its ownterms, but in the way in which it rarely shies away from, and almostalways deals convincingly with, standard questions faced by anyonewho trulythinksabout Nietzsche: what is the status of the attempt toprove the existence of eternal return; what precisely are will andpower; what links will to power and eternal return; what links thesetwo to values and the revaluation of values; how can truth be an errorandsometruths still exist; what is meant by creation, transfiguring,surpassing, and overcoming? The price that Heidegger pays for hisrigorous metaphysical understanding, and itisa characteristic price,is to glide over almost everything that Nietzsche says about particularphenomena, particular regions of being such as art or politics, exceptto the degree that they contribute directly to the metaphysicaldiscussion.Even if Heideggeriscorrect in thinking that whatNietzsche says about art, politics, religion, and knowledge is ulti-mately conceived in terms of will to power and, therefore, is at themetaphysical level, not everything that he says is directly at that level.Some of his remarks maybe well- or ill-conceived "science." Heideggerargues that the sciences cannot demonstrate by their own methodsthe adequacy of the conception of, say, life, history, or art that theyproject in advance of their scientific analyses. The biologistquabiologist works within, but cannot demonstrate, the truth of hispreconception of what counts as living. Obviously, however, thatsame person might reflect, and reflect deeply, on the metaphysics ofthe "living." Similarly, much of what Nietzsche says maybe scientificreflections, or even everyday remarks, that take for granted what artor politics are, rather than explorations of their underlying constitu-tion and ways of being. Although Heidegger leaves undiscussed theways in which conscious philosophical reflection might actuallyinform the approachorconceptions of any science, it stands to reasonthat Nietzsche's everyday or scientific remarks, if, indeed, much ofwhat he says is in fact at that level, are at root determined by his
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philosophical reflections. But they need not always be identical tothese reflections.
The effect of Heidegger's procedure is to ignore or, from thepoint of view of politics and morality, soften much of what is mostoutrageous, dangerous, or challenging in what Nietzsche says aboutpolitics, morality, and religion.We will explore this briefly below. Itis another matter, of course, whether he is correct to assert that thegreater danger is to misinterpret the philosophical level of Nietzsche'sdiscussions, and therefore, to ignore how his thought constitutes theend of philosophy and the greatest metaphysical forgetfulness ofBeing.
II
Heidegger touches on several themes inNietzschethat are signifi-cant to students of political philosophy beyond his discussion ofNietzsche's own thought. Within the limits of my emphasis on thesections ofNietzschethat deal with philosophy rather than withHeidegger's indications about Being itself, I will briefly mentionthree of them: his division of ancient and modern thought, his explicitremarks on politics, and his remarks on relativism. I will considerHeidegger's discussion of the history of the "Event" of Being, hisattempt to bring the question of Being itself to light both as it groundsmetaphysics and as it stands on its own, in the second part of thispaper.
Heidegger understands the distinction between ancient andmodern thought to rest with Descartes' uncovering of subjectivityand the representation of beings as objects. The methodical securingof objects for my subjective certainty is what makes possible moder-nity, including the mathematical representation that is characteristicof it.Mathematical physics does not ground modernity, that is to say,but is itself grounded in the modern metaphysical projection. Byextension, it is clear that the characteristic understanding of nature,the common good, and ruling that we find in Machiavelli and Hobbeswould also need to be rooted in this projection. Heidegger mentionsMachiavelli (and Thucydides) as authors to consider when analyzing
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power. "Nietzsche . . . had clear knowledge of the fact that themetaphysics of will to power conforms only to Roman-ness andMachiavelli's Prince. For the thinker of will to power, the onlyessential figure among the Greeks was the historical thinkerThucydides, who reflects on the history of the PeloponnesianWar .... But Thucydides, the thinker of history, was not able toovercome the Platonism reigning at the basis of Nietzsche's thought"(IV 165; II 221-2).Despite this remark, Heidegger does not go on toanalyze either Thucydides or Machiavelli; his discussion of power isconfined to Nietzsche and Aristotle, and his purpose is to show thatalthough Nietzsche does not see the connection between his "con-cept of power as a concept of Being and Aristotle's doctrine," thisdoctrine has more to do with Nietzsche than do any of the academicdistinctions of possibility, actuality, and necessity. Indeed, Book IXof theMetaphysics,where Aristotle uncoversdynamis(force) as thecapacity to be gatheredinitself and prepared to work effects,energeiaas the process of dominance, the being at work of force, andentelechiaas power's coming to the circumscribed simplicity of itsessence is "the most worthy of questions" of all books in Aristotle (I64-5; I 76-8).
Still, precisely because mathematical physics is not the heart ofmodernity, one cannot help wondering whether Machiavelli's politi-cal radicalism might not prove to be the first clear projection of themodern metaphysics of subjectivity. Similarly, although it is a mis-take to take a statement about beings as such and reproduce it as ifit could be a useful or intelligible concept when applied scientificallyto one region of entities, Heidegger's clarification of the philosophi-cal link between certainty and representation would seem to provideuseful clues in understanding Hobbes and Locke. The fear of deaththat is the ground of modern political thought and practice is not somuch fear of one particular entity as itisthe fear of being nothing atall.Fear of death is the certain passion that discloses this simpleemptiness, and it is in the light of this passion that any entity is firstintelligible as-first can be-good or evil. What is good is what"secures" us in our flight from death; what is "objectively" good iswhat secures us in the steadiness of this passionate movement. Our
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rights are the authoritative standpoints in which we gather ourselvesin our certain passion and discover what is desirable. In this sense,our rights specify our subjectivity and open it outward.
Heidegger's few remarks about Nietzsche's political rhetoricmanifest his wariness of the error that we have mentioned ofconfusing philosophy with science. Heidegger obviously interpretspower metaphysically and he believes that Nietzsche does as well.But this metaphysical interpretation also prevails in Heidegger'sremarks about "great politics" and the "blond beast." For Heidegger,"great politics" is merely another one of Nietzsche's names for hisoverall effort, and the "beast" of the "blond beast" expresses thesignificance of the sensual and the living in Nietzsche, chaos andbecoming as against the rational and the fixed. But life, chaos, andbecoming are, as we have seen Heidegger argue, terms whoseauthentic Nietzschean meaning is to describe being as a whole andaspects of the beingness of beings. They are not terms of biology orphysics, or casual everyday concepts. The "political interpretations ofNietzsche's fundamental thought" are the greatest culprits in strip-ping it of its philosophical depth; they further the "flattening processthe most, if they do not actually cancel out the essence of will topower." Indeed, "it does not matter whether these political counter-feits" that prevent us from seeing the true meaning of will to power"feed a hatred of Germans or `serve' a love of Germans" (III 151; I650).Does this mean, then, that Heidegger ignores or flees theterrible implications of what Nietzsche says?
From his own perspective, Heidegger believes that he facesthem more squarely than anyone, because he has uncovered howNietzsche has brought us face to face with the sheer oblivion ofBeing.Moreover, far from shying from Nietzsche's discussion ofnihilism, he makes it thematic.
Heidegger's thematic treatment of Nietzsche's discussion ofnihilism, however, also treats it metaphysically, The devaluing of thepreviously highest values is significant not so much because it leavesa vacuum at the core of ordinary choice, as because the old gods takenat face value no longer are useful conditions of and for the perspec-tives that overpowering self-surpassing opens up. The difficulty is
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with the range and scope of the way in which beings are mastered,rather than with the growing insignificance of any particular entitiesthat happened to guide us in the past. The fact that the devaluationof this or that guiding or attractive standard or way of life might leadto unchecked destruction, murder, and misery is not what is mostterrible about nihilism; indeed, that this may result is not as such partof Heidegger's analysis.
Yet Nietzsche's understanding is the most radical triumph ofnihilism in perhaps its most important sense: the triumph of beingsover Being. Heidegger would not want to deny, indeed he wishes toassert, that this radical fact suffuses the meaning of every entitytoday. But, with the exception of one or two possible pieces ofevidence, Heidegger leaves unexplored what nihilism metaphysi-cally understood means for the fate and power of any concrete guideor restraint.
For one, Heidegger makes evident his dissatisfaction with AlfredBaeumler's interpretation of Nietzsche. We might read this dissat-isfaction as evidence of his dislike for philosophic arguments withwhich the Nazis had some sympathy. In fact, however, Heidegger'sconcern is largely with the mistake of understanding Nietzsche'sconcepts politically rather than metaphysically, and with Baeumler'sfailure to take the eternal return seriously. That is, his concern is notmoral or political in the usual sense of assessing the possibilities andstandards for everyday choice; it is moral or political only to thedegree that the failure to grasp Nietzsche correctly obfuscates thepossibility and necessity for the radical decision that will allow us tosee the singular context of Being from which beingness itself takes itslight. Presumably, this decision may then have consequences for themeaning of everyday moral and political choice. But from thestandpoint of this decision, the nihilism at the root of contemporarymorality and politics cannot be "overcome by tearing away at it orshoving it aside-which is what we do when we replace the ChristianGod with yet another ideal, such as Reason, Progress, political andeconomic `Socialism,' or mere Democracy" (II 179; I 442). Each ofthese gods is equivalent, because each. is equally dead. ThoughHeidegger may no longer believe that Nazism offers hope of being
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the political movement that is coordinate with resolute openness, hestill does not condemn it: at most, we might say that he now believesit to advance nihilism at the same level as Democracy, Reason, andProgress, at which level it would be equivalent to them, but notinferior.'
The closest that Heidegger comes to interpreting a concretepolitical event in Nietzschean terms is in a remark that he makesabout the British destruction of the French fleet at Oran in 1940. Theburden of this remark is to illustrate the fact that from Nietzsche'sstandpoint the justification for the act must stand within the Britishattempt to enhance their power. "We" [Germans? thinkers? moralmen?] cannot and dare not supply the justification, because "in ametaphysical sense" each power has its own right and comes towrong only through impotence. It belongs to the "metaphysicaltactics" of any power not to regard its opponents' actions from theirperspective but, rather, to subject them to standards of universalmorality, with the consequent value for propaganda.
Beyond its being an example of the emptiness of universalstandards once power is understood in Nietzsche's sense, isHeidegger's illustration a call for German wariness, or a reminder ofthe nihilistic meaning of Nietzsche's own thought, for Germans aswell as other Europeans? Or is it both, an instance of the link betweenhis people's destiny and the possible overcoming of nihilism (See IV144-5; II 198)?
This discussion raises the question of Heidegger's view of theopinion that truth about good and bad, indeed, truth generally, isrelativetowhat is fleeting and arbitrary. For today, of course, thisopinion usually is advanced behind the Nietzschean armor of values,perspectives, and domination. Heidegger lays out, and then criti-cizes, this ordinary judgment, especially as it is used to reduce allphilosophy to mere subjective standpoint. Whatever one may finallysay about the success of Heidegger's efforts, one must see that, justas is true of Nietzsche, he is aware of and grapples with the problemof "relativism" and the dangers it poses.
The common notion that everythingismerely relative to this orthat human standpoint fails toask,Heidegger argues, exactly who
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man is to whom things are relative, and mistakenly confuses scientificcertainty, according to this or that half-grasped notion of science,with understanding beings in their being. Some understanding ofbeings such that, say, the principle of contradiction holds true ofthem precedes every possible science. The common relativisticnotion presupposes in an unexamined way a notion of man and hisrelation to being such that talk about human subjectivity and stand-points for observation is intelligible to begin with. The actual prob-lem of justification, however, is more difficult, more subtle, and,finally,more dangerous than ordinary relativism sees because it putsin question the entire horizon in terms of which the very intelligibilityof justification is possible. Indeed, it puts in question the intelligibil-ity of the terms and concepts-human choice and decision, goodsand values, perspectives and standpoints-used to launch the com-mon criticism in the first place.
Heidegger, therefore, raises the question of justification pre-cisely as he launches into his discussion of justification as the centralterm for grasping Nietzsche's understanding of truth, and, conse-quently, of Being. Only through constructing the broadest and mostoverpowering perspective in constant self-excelling does a clearingopen in which justification of values can begin to be established.Thought through, such a notion of justification shows that Nietzscheis at one with all philosophers in ultimately attempting to see what iswithin its permanent presence. Each philosopher grounds every-thing that men choose to do in something comprehensive and"eternal," however understood. And yet the result for all, as Heideggersees it, is nihilism. The issue for us, then, is how to understand thephilosophers where they differ, a task that is possible only byquestioning on grounds on which they all stand.
Mark BlitzHudson InstituteNotes
1.The first reference will be to the English translation ofNietzsche,sometimes with minor modifications. The second refer-ence will be to the German edition. In both cases, the Roman
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numeral refers to the volume and the Arabic numeral refers to thepage within the volume. Martin Heidegger,Nietzsche,Harpercollins,1979 ff., edited by David Farrell Krell. Martin Heidegger,Nietzsche,Verlag Gunther Neske, Pfullingen, 1961. (The lectures and essaysthat make upNietzschewere first composed and delivered between1936 and 1946.)
2.I will discuss the status of Heidegger's understanding of Platoin Part II of this paper.
3.See Mark Blitz,Heidegger's "Being and Time" and thePossibility of Political Philosophy(Ithaca, NY: Cornell UniversityPress, 1981), Chapter6.
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